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Bible (1411)The
Black Death, or The
Black Plague, was one of the most deadly pandemics in human history. It began in South-western or
Central Asia and spread to
Europe by the late 1340s. The total number of deaths worldwide from the pandemic is estimated at 75 million people; there were an estimated 10 million deaths in Europe alone. The Black Death is estimated to have killed one fifth of Medieval demography. Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, "The Greatest Epidemic of History" ("La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire", in
L'Histoire n° 310, June 2006, pp.45-46, say "between one-third and two-thirds"; Robert Gottfried (1983). "Black Death" in
Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume 2, pp.257-67, says "between 25 and 45 percent".
The same disease is thought to have returned to Europe every generation with varying
virulence and mortalities until the 1700s. Epidemics of the Past—Bubonic Plague During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe. Black Death blamed on man, not rats On its return in 1603, the plague killed 38,000
Londoners. Plague - LoveToKnow 1911 Other notable 17th century outbreaks were the Italian Plague of 1629-1631, the
Great Plague of Seville (1647-1652), the Great Plague of London (1665–1666), A List of National Epidemics of Plague in England 1348-1665 the
Great Plague of Vienna (1679). There is some controversy over the identity of the disease, but in its virulent form, after the Great Plague of Marseille in 1720–1722 Plague History Provence and the Plague Riot it seems to have disappeared from Europe in the 18th century.
The fourteenth-century eruption of the Black Death had a drastic effect on Europe's population, irrevocably changing Europe's social structure. It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in widespread persecution of minorities such as Jews, foreigners, beggars and lepers. The uncertainty of daily survival created a general mood of morbidity influencing people to "live for the moment", as illustrated by
Giovanni Boccaccio in
The Decameron (1353).
The Great Death
Medieval people called the fourteenth century catastrophe either the "Great Pestilence," the "Great Death," or the "Great Plague." Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister,
Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), 327. Contemporary writers then referred to the event as the "Great Mortality"; the term "Black Death" was introduced for the first time in 1833. Ibid. It has been popularly thought that the name came from a striking late-stage sign of the disease, in which the sufferer's skin would blacken due to subepidermal hemorrhages (purpura), and the extremities would darken with gangrene (acral necrosis). However, the term most likely refers to the figurative sense of "black" (glum, lugubrious or dreadful).Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, "The Biggest Epidemic of History" (
La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire, in
L'Histoire n°310, June 2006, pp.38 (article from pp.38 to 49, the whole issue is dedicated to the Black Plague, pp.38-60)
The Black Death was, according to historical accounts, characterized by
buboes (swellings in lymph nodes), like the late nineteenth century Asian Bubonic plague. Scientists and historians at the beginning of the twentieth century assumed that the Black Death was an outbreak of the same disease, caused by the bacterium
Yersinia pestis and spread by
fleas with the help of animals like the
black rat. (
Rattus rattus). However, this view has recently been questioned by scientists and historians, as described in section 3.2. New research suggests Black Death is lying dormant{{cite book | last = Cohn
| first = Samuel K.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe
| publisher = A Hodder Arnold
| date = 2003
| location =
| pages = 336
| url =
| id= ISBN 0-340-70646-5 -->
Plague migration
The plague disease, caused by
Yersinia pestis, is enzootic in populations of ground
rodents in central Asia, but it is not entirely clear where the fourteenth-century pandemic started. The most popular theory places the first cases in the steppes of
Central Asia, though some speculate that it originated around northern
India, and others, like scholar Michael W. Dols, argue that the historical evidence concerning epidemics in the Mediterranean and specifically the Plague of Justinian point to a probability that the Black Death originated in Africa and spread to central Asia, where it then became entrenched among the rodent population. Michael W. Dols, "The Second Plague Pandemic and Its Recurrences in the Middle East: 1347-1894"
Journal of the Economic Social History of the Orientvol. 22 no. 2 (May 1979), 170-171. Nevertheless, from central Asia it was carried east and west along the Silk Road, by
Mongol armies and traders making use of the opportunities of free passage within the Mongol Empire offered by the
Pax Mongolica. It was reportedly first introduced to Europe at the trading city of
Feodosiya in the Crimea in 1347. After a protracted siege, during which the Mongol army under
Janibeg was suffering the disease, they catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls to infect the inhabitants. The Republic of Genoa traders fled, bringing the plague by ship into Sicily and the south of Europe, whence it spread. The Black Death
Whether or not this hypothesis is accurate, it is clear that several pre-existing conditions such as war, famine and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death. A devastating civil war in China between the established Chinese population and the Mongol hordes raged between 1205 and 1353. This war disrupted farming and trading patterns, and led to episodes of widespread famine.
The Medieval warm period ended sometime towards the end of the fourteenth century, bringing harsher winters and reduced harvests. In the years 1315 to 1322 a catastrophic famine, known as the
Great Famine of 1315-1317, struck all of Northern Europe. The famine came about as the result of a large population growth in the previous centuries, with the result that Europe had become overpopulated in the early fourteenth century; the number of Europeans began to exceed the reduced productive capacity of the land and farmers. Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister,
Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), 326. In Northern Europe, new technological innovations such as the heavy plow and the Crop rotation were not as effective in clearing new fields for harvest as they were in the Mediterranean because the north had poor, clay-like, soil. Ibid. Food shortages and skyrocketing prices were a fact of life for as much as a century before the plague. Wheat, oats, hay, and consequently livestock were all in short supply, and their scarcity resulted in hunger and malnutrition. The result was a mounting human vulnerability to disease, due to weakened immune systems. The European economy entered a vicious circle in which hunger and chronic, low-level debilitating disease reduced the productivity (economics) of labourers, and so the grain output suffered, causing grain prices to increase. This situation was worsened when landowners and monarchs like Edward I of England (r. 1272-1307) and Philip IV of France (r. 1285-1314), out of a fear that their comparatively high standard of living would decline, raised the fines and rents of their tenants. Ibid., 327. Standards of living then fell drastically, diets grew more limited, and Europeans as a whole experienced more health problems. In autumn of 1314, heavy rains began to fall which led to several years of cold and wet winters. The already weak harvests of the north suffered and the seven-year famine ensued. The Great Famine was the worst in European history, and carried away at least ten percent of the population. Ibid.
This was the economic and social situation in which the predictor of the coming disaster, a typhoid (Infected Water) epidemic, emerged. Many thousands died in populated urban centres, most significantly
Ypres. In 1318 a pestilence of unknown origin, sometimes identified as anthrax, targeted the animals of Europe, notably sheep and cattle, further reducing the food supply and income of the peasantry. This put another strain on the economy. The increasingly international nature of the European economies meant that the depression was felt across the whole continent.
Asian outbreak
The scenario that would place the first outbreak in central Asia agrees with the first reports of outbreaks in China in the early 1330s. The plague struck the Chinese province of Hubei in 1334. On the heels of the European epidemic, more widespread disaster occurred in China during 1353–1354. Chinese accounts of this wave of the disease record a spread to eight distinct areas: Hubei,
Jiangxi,
Shanxi,
Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi,
Henan and Suiyuan,Suiyuan was a historical Chinese province that now forms part of Hebei and
Inner Mongolia. throughout the Mongol and Chinese empires. Historian William McNeill noted that voluminous Chinese records on disease and social disruption survive from this period, but no one has studied these sources in depth.
It is probable that the Mongols and merchant caravans inadvertently brought the plague from central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. The plague was reported in the trading cities of
Constantinople and Trabzon in 1347. In that same year, the
Republic of Genoa possession of
Theodosia, a great trade emporium on the Crimean peninsula, came under siege by an army of
Mongol warriors under the command of Janibeg, backed by Republic of Venice forces. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from the disease, they might have decided to use the infected corpses as a
biological weapon. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants.Svat Soucek.
A History of Inner Asia.
Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-65704-0. p. 116. The Genoese traders fled, transferring the plague via their ships into the south of Europe, whence it rapidly spread. According to accounts, so many died in Caffa that the survivors had little time to bury them and bodies were stacked like cords of firewood against the city walls.
European outbreak
In October 1347, a fleet of Genovese trading ships fleeing Caffa reached the port of Messina, Italy. By the time the fleet reached Messina, all the crew members were either infected or dead. It is presumed that the ships also carried infected rats and/or fleas. Some ships were found grounded on shorelines, with no one aboard remaining alive. Looting of these lost ships also helped spread the disease. From there, the plague spread to
Genoa and
Venice by the turn of 1347–
1348.
From Italy the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain,
Portugal and England by June 1348, then turned and spread east through
Germany and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced in Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then proceeded to spread to
Bjørgvin (modern
Bergen). Finally it spread to north-western Russia in 1351; however, the plague largely spared some parts of Europe, including the Piast Poland#The Kingdom of Later Piasts (1295–1370) and isolated parts of
Belgium and The Netherlands.
Middle Eastern outbreak
The plague struck various countries in the Middle East during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures. As it spread to western Europe, the disease also entered the region from southern Russia. By autumn 1347, the plague reached Alexandria in
Egypt, probably through the port's trade with
Constantinople and ports on the Black Sea. During 1348, the disease traveled eastward to
Gaza, and north along the eastern coast to cities in Lebanon,
Syria and Palestine, including Asqalan, Acre, Israel, Jerusalem, Sidon, Damascus, Homs, and
Aleppo. In 1348–49, the disease reached
Antioch. The city's residents fled to the north, most of them dying during the journey, but the infection had been spread to the people of Asia Minor.
Mecca became infected in 1349. During the same year, records show the city of
Mawsil (Mosul) suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease. In 1351, Yemen experienced an outbreak of the plague. This coincided with the return of King Mujahid of Yemen from imprisonment in Cairo. His party may have brought the disease with them from Egypt.
Recurrence
In England, in the absence of census figures, historians propose a range of pre-incident population figures from as high as 7 million to as low as 4 million in 1300, and a post-incident population figure as low as 2 million.Secondary sources such as the
Cambridge History of Medieval England often contain discussions of methodology in reaching these figures that are necessary reading for anyone wishing to understand this controversial episode in more detail. By the end of 1350 the Black Death had subsided, but it never really died out in England over the next few hundred years: there were further outbreaks in 1361-62, 1369, 1379-83, 1389-93, and throughout the first half of the fifteenth century. Plague often killed 10% of a community in less than a year - in the worst epidemics, such as at
Norwich in 1579 and Newcastle upon Tyne in 1636, as many as 30 or 40%. The most general outbreaks in Tudor and Stuart England, all coinciding with years of plague in Germany and the
Low Countries, seem to have begun in 1498, 1535, 1543, 1563, 1589, 1603, 1625 and 1636. Spread of the Plague
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries, and although bubonic plague still occurs in isolated cases today, the Great Plague of London in 1665–
1666 is generally recognized as one of the last major outbreaks. The Great Fire of London in 1666 may have killed off any remaining plague-bearing rats and fleas, which led to a decline in the plague.
Late outbreaks in central Europe include the Italian Plague of 1629-1631, which is associated with troop movements during the
Thirty Years' War, and the Great Plague of Vienna in 1679.
Causes of bubonic infection
Bubonic plague theory
seen at 2000x magnification. This bacterium, carried and spread by fleas, is generally thought to have been the cause of millions of deaths
Plague and the ecology of
Yersinia pestis in soil, and in rodent and (possibly and importantly) human ectoparasites are reviewed and summarized by Michel Drancourt in modeling sporadic, limited and large plague outbreaks.{{cite web | last = Drancourt,
| first = M.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Houhamdi, L; Raoult, D.
| title = Yersinia pestis as a telluric, human ectoparasite-borne organism
| work = Infectious Diseases
| publisher = [The Lancet
| date =
| url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70438-8
| accessdate = --> Modelling of epizootic plague observed in prairie dogs suggests that occasional reservoirs of infection such as an infectious carcass, rather than "blocked fleas" are a better explanation for the observed [epizootic behaviour of the disease in nature.{{cite web
| last = Webb,
| first = Colleen T.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Christopher P. Brooks, Kenneth L. Gage, and Michael F. Antolin
| title = Classic flea-borne transmission does not drive plague epizootics in prairie dogs
| work = Infectious Diseases
| publisher = [Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
| date = April 7 [
| url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/0510090103v1the apples
| format=pdf
| accessdate = 2006-12-12 -->
An interesting hypothesis about the epidemiology— the appearance, spread and especially disappearance— of plague from Europe is that the flea-bearing rodent reservoir of disease was eventually succeeded by another species. The black rat (
Rattus rattus) was originally introduced from Asia to Europe by trade, but was subsequently displaced and succeeded throughout Europe by the bigger
brown rat (
Rattus norvegicus). The brown rat was not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large die-offs due to a different rat ecology.Appleby and Slack, secondary references. The dynamic complexities of rat ecology,
herd immunity in that reservoir, interaction with human ecology, secondary transmission routes between humans with or without fleas, human herd immunity and changes in each might explain the eruption, dissemination, and re-eruptions of plague that continued for centuries until its (even more) unexplained disappearance.
Signs and symptoms
The three forms of plague brought an array of signs and symptoms to those infected. Bubonic plague refers to the painful lymph node swellings called buboes, mostly found around the base of the neck, and in the armpits and groin. The septicaemic plague is a form of blood poisoning, and pneumonic plague is an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body. The classic sign of bubonic plague was the appearance of buboes in the groin, the neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled. Victims underwent damage to the skin and underlying tissue, until they were covered in dark blotches. Most victims died within four to seven days after infection. When the plague reached Europe, it first struck port cities and then followed the trade routes, both by sea and land.
The bubonic plague was the most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a
mortality rate of thirty to seventy-five percent and symptoms including fever of 38 - 41 °Celsius (101-105 Fahrenheit),
headaches, painful aching joints,
nausea and
vomiting, and a general feeling of
malaise. Of those who contracted the bubonic plague, 4 out of 5 died within eight days. Rebecca Totaro,
Suffering in Paradise: The Bubonic Plague in English Literature from More to Milton, (Pittsburgh: Duquense University Press: 2005), p. 26. Pneumonic plague was the second most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a
mortality rate of ninety to ninety-five percent. Symptoms included fever, cough and blood-tinged
sputum. As the disease progressed, sputum became free flowing and bright red. Septicaemic plague was the least common of the three forms, with mortality close to one hundred percent. Symptoms were high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to DIC (Disseminated intravascular coagulation)).
David HerlihyHerlihy,
The Black Death and the Transformation of the West (1997) Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, p. 29. identifies another potential sign of the plague: freckle-like spots and rashes. Sources from Viterbo, Italy refer to "the signs which are vulgarly called
lenticulae," a word which bears resemblance to the Italian word for freckles,
lentiggini. These are not the swellings of buboes, but rather "darkish points or pustules which covered large areas of the body."
Alternative explanations
Recent scientific and historical investigations have led some researchers to doubt the long-held belief that the Black Death was an epidemic of bubonic plague. For example, in 2000, Gunnar KarlssonKarlsson,
Iceland's 1100 Years: The History of a Marginal Society pointed out that the Black Death killed between half and two-thirds of the population of
Iceland, although there were no rats in Iceland at this time. Rats were accidentally introduced in the nineteenth century, and have never spread beyond a small number of urban areas attached to seaports. In the fourteenth century there were no urban settlements in Iceland. Iceland was unaffected by the later plagues which are known to have been spread by rats. However, without a rodent reservoir, pneumonic plague can be transmitted from human to human by respiratory transmission, and bubonic and septicemic plague can be transmitted from human to human by human-biting fleas.
In addition, it was previously argued that tooth pulp tissue from a fourteenth-century plague cemetery in
Montpellier tested positive for molecules associated with
Y. pestis. Similar findings were reported in a 2007 study, "
Yersinia pestis Orientalis in remains of ancient plague patients." but other studies have yielded negative results. In September 2003, a team of researchers from
University of Oxford tested 121 teeth from sixty-six skeletons found in fourteenth-century mass graves. The remains showed no genetic trace of
Y. pestis, and the researchers suspect that the Montpellier study was flawed.
In 2002, Samuel K. Cohn published the controversial article, “The Black Death: End of the Paradigm.”Samuel. K Cohn, “The Black Death: End of a Paradigm,” The American Historical Review 107 (2002): 703-738. In the article Cohn argues that the medieval and modern plagues were two distinct diseases differing in their symptoms, signs and epidemiologies.Ibid., 703. Cohn asserts that the agent causing the bubonic plague,
Yersinia pestis, “was first cultured at Hong Kong in 1894.” Ibid. In turn, the medieval plague that struck Europe, according to Cohn, was not the bubonic plague carried by fleas on rats as traditionally viewed by scientists and historians alike.Ibid.
Cohn’s argument that medieval plague was not rat-based is supported by his claims that the modern and medieval plagues hit in different seasons, had unparalleled cycles of recurrence, and varied in the manner in which immunity was acquired. The modern plague reaches its peak in seasons with high humidity and a temperature of between 50 and 78 degrees, as rats’ fleas thrive in this climate.Ibid., 725. In comparison, the Black Death is recorded as hitting in periods where rats’ fleas could not survive, i.e. hot Mediterranean summers above 78 degrees Fahrenheit.Ibid. In terms of recurrence, the Black Death on average did not resurface in an area for between five and fifteen years after it hit.Ibid., 727. Contrastingly, modern plagues often hit an affected area yearly for an average to eight to forty years.Ibid. Last, Cohn presents evidence displaying that individuals gained immunity to the Black Death during the fourteenth century, unlike the modern plague. He states that in 1348 two-thirds of those suffering from plague died in comparison to one-twentieth by 1382.Ibid. Statistics contrastingly display that immunity to the modern plague has not been acquired.
Cohn also points out that in the latter part of the nineteenth century buboes appeared mostly on an infected person's groin, while medieval primary sources indicate that the Black Death caused buboes to appear on necks, armpits, and groins. This difference, he argues, ties in with the fact that fleas caused the modern plague and not the Black Death. Since flea bites do not usually reach beyond a person's ankles, in the modern period the groin was the nearest lymph node that could be infected. As the neck and the armpit were often infected during the medieval plague, it appears less likely that these infections were caused by fleas on rats. Samuel K. Cohn,
The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe (London: Edward Arnold Publishers, 2002), 81.
In 1984, Graham Twigg published
The Black Death: A Biological Reappraisal, where he argued that the climate and ecology of Europe and particularly England made it nearly impossible for rats and fleas to have transmitted bubonic plague. Combining information on the biology of
Rattus rattus,
Rattus norvegicus, and the common fleas
Xenopsylla cheopis and
Pulex irritans with modern studies of plague epidemiology, particularly in India, where the
R. rattus is a native species and conditions are nearly ideal for plague to be spread, Twigg concludes that it would have been nearly impossible for
Yersinia pestis to have been the causative agent of the plague, let alone its explosive spread across Europe. Twigg also shows that the common theory of entirely pneumonic spread does not hold up. He proposes, based on a re-examination of the evidence and symptoms, that the Black Death may actually have been an epidemic of pulmonary
anthrax caused by
Bacillus anthracis.
In 2001, epidemiology Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan from Liverpool University proposed the theory that the Black Death might have been caused by an Ebola virus-like
virus (biology), not a bacterium. Their rationale was that this plague spread much faster and the incubation period was much longer than other confirmed
Y.pestis-caused plagues. A longer period of incubation will allow carriers of the infection to travel farther and infect more people than a shorter one. When the primary
vector (biology) is humans, as opposed to birds, this is of great importance. Studies of English church records indicate an unusually long incubation period in excess of thirty days, which could account for the rapid spread, topping at 5 km/day. The plague also appeared in areas of Europe where rats were uncommon, areas such as
Iceland. Epidemiological studies suggest the disease was transferred between humans (which happens rarely with
Yersinia pestis and very rarely for
Bacillus anthracis), and some
genes that determine immunity to Ebola-like viruses are much more widespread in
Europe than in other parts of the world. Their research and findings are thoroughly documented in
Return of the Black Death: The World's Greatest Serial Killer. More recently the researchers have published computer modeling
Journal of Medical Genetics: March 2005 demonstrating how the Black Death has made around 10% of Europeans resistant to HIV.
In a similar vein, historian Norman F. Cantor, in his 2001 book
In the Wake of the Plague, suggests the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of
anthrax disease, a cattle murrain. He cites many forms of evidence including: reported disease symptoms not in keeping with the known effects of either bubonic or
pneumonic plague, the discovery of anthrax spores in a
plague pit in
Scotland, and the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague. It is notable that the means of infection varied widely, from human-to-human contact as in Iceland (rare for plague and cutaneous
Bacillus anthracis) to infection in the absence of living or recently-dead humans, as in Sicily (which speaks against most viruses). Also, diseases with similar symptoms were generally not distinguished between in that period (see
murrain above), at least not in the Christian world; Chinese and Muslim medical records can be expected to yield better information which however only pertains to the specific disease(s) which affected these areas.
Counter-arguments
Historians who believe that the Black Death was indeed caused by bubonic plague have put forth several counterarguments.
The uncharacteristically rapid spread of the plague could be due to respiratory droplet transmission, and low levels of immunity in the European population at that period. Historical examples of pandemics of other diseases in populations without previous exposure, such as
smallpox and
tuberculosis transmitted by aerosol amongst Indigenous peoples of the Americas, show that the first instance of an epidemic spreads faster and is far more virulent than later instances among the descendants of survivors, for whom natural selection has produced characteristics that are protective against the disease.
Michael McCormick, a historian offering the idea that bubonic plague was indeed the source of the Black Death, explains how archaeological research has confirmed that the black or "ship" rat was indeed present in Roman and medieval Europe. Also, the DNA of
Y. pestis has been identified in the teeth of human victims, the same DNA which has been widely believed to have come from the infected rodents. Michael McCormick, "Rats, Communications, and Plague: Toward an Ecological History,"
Journal of Interdisciplinary History 34 (2003): 25. He does not refute the point that there exists a pneumonic expression of
Y. pestis transmitted by human-to-human contact, but he states that this does not spread as easily as previous historians have imagined. The rat, according to him, is the only plausible agent of transmission that could have led to such a wide and quick spread of the plague. This is because of rats' proclivity to associate with humans and the ability of their blood to withstand very large concentrations of the bacillus. Ibid., 2. When rats died, their fleas (which were infected with bacterial blood) found new hosts in the form of humans and animals. The Black Death tapered off in the eighteenth century, and according to McCormick, a rat-based theory of transmission could explain why this occurred. The plague(s) had killed a lot of the human host population of Europe and dwindling cities meant that more people were isolated, and so geography and demography did not allow rats to have as much contact with Europeans. Slacking communication systems also hindered the replenishment of decimated rat colonies. Ibid., 23.
A Malthusian crisis
In addition, various historians have adopted yet another theory for the cause of the Black Plague, one that points to social, agricultural, and sometimes economic causes. Often known as the Malthusian limit, scholars use this term to express, and/or explain, certain tragedies throughout history. In his 1798
Essay on the Principle of Population, Thomas Malthus asserted that eventually humans would reproduce so greatly that they would go beyond the limits of food supplies; once they reached this point, some sort of "reckoning" was inevitable. While the Black Death may appear to be a "reckoning" of this sort, it was in fact an external, unpredictable factor and does not therefore fit into the Malthusian theory. In his book,
The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, David Herlihy explores this idea of Plague as an inevitable crisis wrought on man in order to control the population and human resources. In the book,
The Black Death; A Turning Point in History? “implies that the Black Death’s pivotal role in late medieval society... was now being challenged. Arguing on the basis of a neo-Malthusian economics, revisionist historians recast the Black Death as a necessary and long overdue corrective to an overpopulated Europe” .
Herlihy examines the arguments against the Malthusian crisis, stating “if the Black Death was a response to excessive human numbers it should have arrived several decades earlier” due to the population growth of years before the outbreak of the Black Death. Herlihy also brings up other, biological factors that argue against the Plague as a "reckoning" by arguing “the role of famines in affecting population movements is also problematic. The many famines preceding the Black Death, even the ‘great hunger’ of 1314 to 1317, did not result in any appreciable reduction in population levels”. Finally Herlihy concludes the matter stating, “the medieval experience shows us not a Malthusian crisis but a stalemate, in the sense that the community was maintaining at stable levels very large numbers over a lengthy period” and states that the phenomenon should be referred to as more of a deadlock, rather than a crisis, to describe Europe before the epidemics.
Consequences
Depopulation
See also: Medieval demography.Figures for the
death toll vary widely by area and from source to source as new research and discoveries come to light. According to medieval historian
Philip Daileader in 2007Philip Daileader,
The Late Middle Ages, audio/video course produced by The Teaching Company, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59803-345-8:The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45% to 50% of the European population dying during a four-year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Mediterranean Europe and Italy, the South of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 70% to 75% of the population. In Germany and England . . . it was probably closer to 20%.
Asia
Estimates of the demographic impact of the plague in Asia are based on both population figures during this time and estimates of the disease's toll on population centers. The initial outbreak of plague in the China province of
Hubei in 1334 claimed up to ninety percent of the population, an estimated five million people. During 1353–54, outbreaks in eight distinct areas throughout the Mongol Empire may have possibly caused the death of two-thirds of China's population, often yielding an estimate of twenty-five million deaths. Black Death - Consequences Japan had no outbreak of plague.
Europe and Middle East
It is estimated that between one-quarter and two-thirds of the European population died from the outbreak between 1348 and 1350. Gottfried, Robert S. (1983). The Black Death. New York: The Free Press Contemporary observers, such as
Jean Froissart, estimated the toll to be one-third -- less an accurate assessment than an allusion to the
Book of Revelation meant to suggest the scope of the plague.Jean Froissart,
Chronicles (trans. Geoffrey Brereton, Penguin, 1968, corrections 1974) pp.111 Many rural villages were depopulated, mostly the smaller communities, as the few survivors fled to larger towns and cities leaving behind abandoned villages.Joseph Patrick Byrne (2004).
The Black Death. ISBN 0313324921 - Page 64. The Black Death hit the culture of towns and cities disproportionately hard, although rural areas (where most of the population lived) were also significantly affected. A few rural areas, such as
Poland and Lithuania, had such low populations and were so isolated that the plague made little progress. Parts of Hungary and, in modern Belgium, the
Duchy of Brabant region, County of Hainaut and
Limbourg, as well as Santiago de Compostella, were unaffected for unknown reasons (some historians Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, "The Biggest Epidemic of History" (
La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire, in
L'Histoire n°310, June 2006, pp.45-46 have assumed that the presence of resistant blood groups in the local population helped them resist the disease, although these regions would be touched by the second plague outbreak in 1360-1363 and later during the numerous resurgences of the plague). Other areas which escaped the plague were isolated mountainous regions (e.g. the
Pyrenees). Larger cities were the worst off, as population densities and close living quarters made disease transmission easier. Cities were also strikingly filthy, infested with lice, fleas and rats, and subject to diseases related to malnutrition and poor hygiene. According to journalist John Kelly, "oefully inadequate sanitation made medieval urban Europe so disease-ridden, no city of any size could maintain its population without a constant influx of immigrants from the countryside."(p. 68) The influx of new citizens facilitated the movement of the plague between communities, and contributed to the longevity of the plague within larger communities.
In Italy, Florence's population passed from 110,000 or 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351. Between 60 to 70% of Hamburg and
Bremen (city)'s population died. In Provence, Dauphiné or Normandy, historians observe a decrease of 60% of fiscal hearths. In some regions, two thirds of the population was annihilated. In the town of Givry, in the Bourgogne region in
France, the friar, who used to note 28 to 29 funerals a year, recorded 649 deaths in 1348, half of them in September. About half of Perpignan's population died in several months (only two of the eight physicians survived the plague). England lost 70% of its population, which passed from 7 million to 2 million in 1400. Barry and Gualde 2006.
All social classes were affected, although the lower classes, living together in unhealthy places, were most vulnerable.
Alfonso XI of Castile was the only royal victim of the plague, but Peter IV of Aragon lost his wife, his daughter and a niece in six months. The Byzantine Emperor lost his son, while in the
kingdom of France,
Joan II of Navarre, daughter of
Louis X of France and of
Margaret of Burgundy, Queen of Navarre, was killed by the plague, as well as Bonne of Bohemia, the wife of the future John II of France.
Furthermore, resurgences of the plague in later years must also be counted: in 1360-62 (the "little mortality"), in 1366-1369, 1374-1375, 1400, 1407, etc. The plague was not eradicated until the 19th century.
The precise demographic impact of the disease in the Middle East is very difficult to calculate. Mortality was particularly high in rural areas, including significant areas of Palestine and Syria. Many surviving rural people fled, leaving their fields and crops, and entire rural provinces are recorded as being totally depopulated. Surviving records in some cities reveal a devastating number of deaths. The 1348 outbreak in Gaza left an estimated 10,000 people dead, while Aleppo recorded a death rate of 500 a day during the same year. In
Damascus, at the disease's peak in September and October 1348, a thousand deaths were recorded every day, with overall mortality estimated at between twenty-five and thirty-eight percent. Syria lost a total of 400,000 people by the time the epidemic subsided in March 1349. In contrast to some higher mortality estimates in Asia and Europe, scholars such as John Fields of Trinity College, Dublin in Dublin believe the mortality rate in the Middle East was less than one-third of the total population, with higher rates in selected areas.
Socio-economic effects
–
1375.The
governments of Europe had no apparent response to the crisis because no one knew its cause or how it spread. In 1348, the plague spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as fifty percent of the population to die. Europeans living in isolated areas suffered less, and monasteries and priests were especially hard hit since they cared for the Black Death's victims. Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister,
Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), 329. Because fourteenth century healers were at a loss in explaining the cause, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for the plagues emergence. Ibid. No one in the fourteenth century considered rat control a way to ward off the plague, and people began to believe only God's anger could produce such horrific displays. As a result, Christians began to attack Jews to please God and end the plague. For example, in August of 1349, the Jewish communities of Mainz and Cologne were exterminated. In February of that same year, Christians murdered two thousand Jews in Strasbourg. Ibid., 329-330. Where government authorities were concerned, most monarchs instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned black market speculators, set price controls on grain, and outlawed large-scale fishing. At best, they proved mostly unenforceable, and at worst they contributed to a continent-wide downward spiral. The hardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain abroad: from France because of the prohibition, and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labour. Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by
piracy or
looters to be sold on the black market. Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and Scotland, had been at war, using up much of their
treasury and exacerbating
inflation. In
1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War, further depleting their treasuries, population, and infrastructure. Malnutrition, poverty, disease and hunger, coupled with war, growing inflation and other economic concerns made Europe in the mid-fourteenth century ripe for tragedy.
The plague did more than just devastate the medieval population; it caused a substantial change in economy and society in all areas of the world. Economic historians like Fernand Braudel have concluded that Black Death exacerbated a recession in the European economy that had been under way since the beginning of the century. As a consequence, social and economic change greatly accelerated during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The church's power was weakened, and in some cases, the social roles it had played were replaced by secular ones. Also the plague led to Popular revolt in late medieval Europe in many parts of Europe, such as France (the
Jacquerie rebellion), Italy (the
Ciompi rebellion, which swept the city of
Florence), and in England (the English Peasant Revolt).
Europe had been overpopulated before the plague, and a reduction of 30% to 50% of the population could have resulted in higher wages and more available land and food for peasants because of less competition for resources. However, for reasons that are still debated, population levels declined after the Black Death's first outbreak until around 1420 and did not begin to rise again until 1470, so the initial Black Death event on its own does not entirely provide a satisfactory explanation to this extended period of decline in prosperity. See
Medieval demography for a more complete treatment of this issue and current theories on why improvements in living standards took longer to evolve.
The great population loss brought economic changes based on increased social mobility, as depopulation further eroded the peasants' already weakened obligations to remain on their traditional holdings. In the wake of the drastic population decline brought on by the plague, authorities in Western Europe worked to maintain social order through instituting wage controls.Simon A. C. Penn and Christopher Dyer, “Wages and Earnings in Late Medieval England: Evidence from the Enforcement of the Labour Laws,” The Economic History Review, New Series 43, no. 3 (Aug., 1990): 356-357. http://www.jstor.org/ (accessed September 8, 2007). These governmental controls were set in place to ensure that workers received the same salary post-plague as they had before the onslaught of the Black Death.Ibid. Within England, for example, the Ordinance of Labourers, created in 1349, and the Statute of Labourers, created in 1351, restricted both wage increases and the relocation of workers.Ibid., 357. If workers attempted to leave their current post, employers were given the right to have them imprisoned.Ibid. The Statute was strictly enforced in some areas. For example, 7,556 people in Essex County were fined for deviating from the Statute in 1352.Joseph P. Byrne, The Black Death, (London: Greenwood Predd, 2004), 65. However, despite examples such as Essex County, the Statute quickly proved to be difficult to enforce due to the scarcity of labour.
In Western Europe, the sudden shortage of cheap labour provided an incentive for landlords to compete for peasants with wages and freedoms, an innovation that, some argue, represents the roots of
capitalism, and the resulting social upheaval
caused the
Renaissance and even
Reformation. In many ways the Black Death and its aftermath improved the situation of surviving peasants, notably by the end of the 15th century. In Western Europe, labourers gained more power and were more in demand because of the shortage of labour. In gaining more power, workers following the Black Death often moved away from annual contracts in favour of taking on successive temporary jobs that offered higher wages.Penn and Dyer, 366. Workers such as servants now had the opportunity to leave their current employment to seek better paying, more attractive positions in areas previous off limits to them.Ibid. Another positive aspect of the period was that there was more fertile land available to the population; however, the benefits would not be fully realized until 1470, nearly 120 years later, when overall population levels finally began to rise again.
Social mobility as result of the Black Death has been postulated as most likely cause of the Great Vowel Shift, which is the principal reason why the spelling system in English today no longer reflects its pronunciation.
In Eastern Europe, by contrast, renewed stringency of laws tied the remaining peasant population more tightly to the land than ever before through serfdom. Sparsely populated Eastern Europe was less affected by the Black Death and so peasant revolts were less common in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, not occurring in the east until the sixteenth through nineteenth centuries. Since it is believed to have in part caused the social upheavals of fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Western Europe, some see the Black Death as a factor in the Renaissance and even the Reformation in Western Europe. Therefore, historians have cited the smaller impact of the plague as a contributing factor in Eastern Europe's
failure to experience either of these movements on a similar scale. Extrapolating from this, the Black Death may be seen as partly responsible for Eastern Europe's considerable lag in scientific and philosophical advances as well as in the move to liberalise government by restricting the power of the monarch and
aristocracy. A common example is that England is seen to have effectively ended
serfdom by 1550 while moving towards more
representative government; meanwhile, Russia did not abolish serfdom until an autocratic tsar decreed so in 1861.
On top of all this, the plague's great population reduction brought cheaper land prices, more food for the average peasant, and a relatively large increase in per capita income among the peasantry, if not immediately, in the coming century. Since the plague left vast areas of farmland untended, they were made available for pasture and put more meat on the market; the consumption of meat and dairy products went up, as did the export of beef and butter from the Low Countries, Scandinavia and northern Germany. However, the upper class often attempted to stop these changes, initially in Western Europe, and more forcefully and successfully in Eastern Europe, by instituting
sumptuary laws. These regulated what people (particularly of the peasant class) could wear, so that nobles could ensure that peasants did not begin to dress and act as a higher class member with their increased wealth. Another tactic was to fix prices and wages so that peasants could not demand more with increasing value. This was met with varying success depending on the amount of rebellion it inspired; such a law was one of the causes of the 1381
Peasants' Revolt in England in the Middle Ages.
Persecutions
As previously mentioned in reference to the plagues sociocultural impacts, renewed religious fervor and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of Black Death. This spelled trouble for minority populations of all sorts, as some Christians targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims", David Nirenberg,
Communities of Violence, op.cit. lepersR.I. Moore
The Formation of a Persecuting Society, Oxford, 1987 ISBN 0-631-17145-2David Nirenberg,
Communities of Violence, 1998, ISBN 0-691-05889-X and gypsies, thinking that they were to blame for the crisis.
Leprosy, and other individuals with skin diseases such as Acne vulgaris or
psoriasis, were singled out and exterminated throughout Europe. Anyone with leprosy was believed to show an outward sign of a defect of the soul.
Differences in cultural and lifestyle practices between Jews and Christians also led to persecution. Jews were charged by some with having provoked the Plague. Because Jews had a religious obligation to be clean, they did not use water from public wells. And so as previously mentioned, Jews were suspected of causing the plague by deliberately poisoning wells. Typically, comparatively fewer Jews died from the Black Death, in part due to Kashrut that promoted habits that were generally cleaner than that of a typical medieval villager. Jews were also socially isolated, often living in Jewish ghettos. Because isolated people were less likely to be infected, there were differences in mortality rates between Jews and non-Jews and this led to raised suspicions in people who had no concept of bacterial transmission.
Christian mobs attacked Jewish settlements across Europe; by 1351, sixty major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed, and more than 350 separate massacres had occurred. This persecution reflected more than ethnic hatred. In many places, attacking Jews was a way to criticize the monarchs who protected them (Jews were under the protection of the king, and often called the "royal treasure"), and monarchic fiscal policies, which were often administered by Jews. An important legacy of the Black Death was to cause the eastward movement of what was left of north European Jewry to Poland and Russia, where it remained until the twentieth century.
Women also faced persecution during the Black Death. Within areas of the Middle East, notably in Cairo, women became scapegoats when the plague struck.Joseph P. Byrne, The Black Death, (London: Greenwood Predd, 2004), 108. In 1438, the sultan of Cairo was informed by his religious lawyers that the arrival of the plague was Allah’s punishment for the sin of fornication.Ibid. In accordance with this theory, a law was set in place stating that women were not allowed to make public appearances as they may tempt men into sin.Ibid. Joseph P. Byrne in his book,
The Black Plague, describes that this law was only lifted when “the wealthy complained that their female servants could not shop for food.”Ibid.
In the Muslim world, particularly in Makkah, the disease was blamed on non-believers who had entered the city. hi
Religion
The Black Death led to cynicism toward religious officials who could not keep their promises of curing plague victims and banishing the disease. No one, the Church included, was able to cure or accurately explain the reasons for the plague outbreaks. One theory of transmission was that it spread through air, and was referred to as Miasma theory of disease, or 'bad air'. This increased doubt in the clergy abilities. Extreme alienation with the Church culminated in either support for different religious groups such as the
flagellants, which from their late 13th century beginnings grew tremendously during the opening years of the Black Death, or to an increase in interest for more secular alternatives to problems facing European so
Bible (1411)The
Black Death, or The
Black Plague, was one of the most deadly
pandemics in human history. It began in South-western or Central Asia and spread to Europe by the late 1340s. The total number of deaths worldwide from the pandemic is estimated at 75 million people; there were an estimated 10 million deaths in Europe alone. The Black Death is estimated to have killed one fifth of Medieval demography. Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, "The Greatest Epidemic of History" ("La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire", in
L'Histoire n° 310, June 2006, pp.45-46, say "between one-third and two-thirds";
Robert Gottfried (1983). "Black Death" in
Dictionary of the Middle Ages, volume 2, pp.257-67, says "between 25 and 45 percent".
The same disease is thought to have returned to Europe every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until the 1700s. Epidemics of the Past—Bubonic Plague During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe. Black Death blamed on man, not rats On its return in 1603, the plague killed 38,000
Londoners. Plague - LoveToKnow 1911 Other notable
17th century outbreaks were the Italian Plague of 1629-1631, the
Great Plague of Seville (1647-1652), the Great Plague of London (1665–1666), A List of National Epidemics of Plague in England 1348-1665 the
Great Plague of Vienna (1679). There is some controversy over the identity of the disease, but in its virulent form, after the
Great Plague of Marseille in 1720–1722 Plague History Provence and the
Plague Riot it seems to have disappeared from Europe in the 18th century.
The fourteenth-century eruption of the Black Death had a drastic effect on Europe's population, irrevocably changing Europe's social structure. It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in widespread persecution of minorities such as Jews, foreigners, beggars and lepers. The uncertainty of daily survival created a general mood of
morbidity influencing people to "live for the moment", as illustrated by
Giovanni Boccaccio in
The Decameron (1353).
The Great Death
Medieval people called the fourteenth century catastrophe either the "Great Pestilence," the "Great Death," or the "Great Plague." Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister,
Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), 327. Contemporary writers then referred to the event as the "Great Mortality"; the term "Black Death" was introduced for the first time in 1833. Ibid. It has been popularly thought that the name came from a striking late-stage sign of the disease, in which the sufferer's skin would blacken due to subepidermal hemorrhages (purpura), and the extremities would darken with gangrene (acral necrosis). However, the term most likely refers to the figurative sense of "black" (glum, lugubrious or dreadful).Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, "The Biggest Epidemic of History" (
La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire, in
L'Histoire n°310, June 2006, pp.38 (article from pp.38 to 49, the whole issue is dedicated to the Black Plague, pp.38-60)
The Black Death was, according to historical accounts, characterized by
buboes (swellings in lymph nodes), like the late nineteenth century Asian
Bubonic plague. Scientists and historians at the beginning of the twentieth century assumed that the Black Death was an outbreak of the same disease, caused by the bacterium
Yersinia pestis and spread by
fleas with the help of animals like the black rat. (
Rattus rattus). However, this view has recently been questioned by scientists and historians, as described in section 3.2. New research suggests Black Death is lying dormant{{cite book | last = Cohn
| first = Samuel K.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe
| publisher = A Hodder Arnold
| date = 2003
| location =
| pages = 336
| url =
| id= ISBN 0-340-70646-5 -->
Plague migration
The plague disease, caused by
Yersinia pestis, is
enzootic in populations of ground
rodents in central Asia, but it is not entirely clear where the fourteenth-century pandemic started. The most popular theory places the first cases in the steppes of
Central Asia, though some speculate that it originated around northern India, and others, like scholar Michael W. Dols, argue that the historical evidence concerning epidemics in the Mediterranean and specifically the
Plague of Justinian point to a probability that the Black Death originated in Africa and spread to central Asia, where it then became entrenched among the rodent population. Michael W. Dols, "The Second Plague Pandemic and Its Recurrences in the Middle East: 1347-1894"
Journal of the Economic Social History of the Orientvol. 22 no. 2 (May 1979), 170-171. Nevertheless, from central Asia it was carried east and west along the Silk Road, by
Mongol armies and traders making use of the opportunities of free passage within the Mongol Empire offered by the Pax Mongolica. It was reportedly first introduced to Europe at the trading city of Feodosiya in the Crimea in 1347. After a protracted siege, during which the Mongol army under
Janibeg was suffering the disease, they catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls to infect the inhabitants. The
Republic of Genoa traders fled, bringing the plague by ship into Sicily and the south of Europe, whence it spread. The Black Death
Whether or not this hypothesis is accurate, it is clear that several pre-existing conditions such as war, famine and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death. A devastating civil war in China between the established Chinese population and the Mongol hordes raged between 1205 and 1353. This war disrupted farming and trading patterns, and led to episodes of widespread famine.
The
Medieval warm period ended sometime towards the end of the fourteenth century, bringing harsher winters and reduced harvests. In the years 1315 to 1322 a catastrophic famine, known as the Great Famine of 1315-1317, struck all of Northern Europe. The famine came about as the result of a large population growth in the previous centuries, with the result that Europe had become overpopulated in the early fourteenth century; the number of Europeans began to exceed the reduced productive capacity of the land and farmers. Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister,
Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), 326. In Northern Europe, new technological innovations such as the heavy plow and the Crop rotation were not as effective in clearing new fields for harvest as they were in the Mediterranean because the north had poor, clay-like, soil. Ibid. Food shortages and skyrocketing prices were a fact of life for as much as a century before the plague. Wheat, oats, hay, and consequently livestock were all in short supply, and their scarcity resulted in hunger and malnutrition. The result was a mounting human vulnerability to disease, due to weakened immune systems. The European economy entered a vicious circle in which hunger and chronic, low-level debilitating disease reduced the productivity (economics) of labourers, and so the grain output suffered, causing grain prices to increase. This situation was worsened when landowners and monarchs like Edward I of England (r. 1272-1307) and Philip IV of France (r. 1285-1314), out of a fear that their comparatively high standard of living would decline, raised the fines and rents of their tenants. Ibid., 327. Standards of living then fell drastically, diets grew more limited, and Europeans as a whole experienced more health problems. In autumn of 1314, heavy rains began to fall which led to several years of cold and wet winters. The already weak harvests of the north suffered and the seven-year famine ensued. The Great Famine was the worst in European history, and carried away at least ten percent of the population. Ibid.
This was the economic and social situation in which the predictor of the coming disaster, a typhoid (Infected Water) epidemic, emerged. Many thousands died in populated urban centres, most significantly Ypres. In 1318 a pestilence of unknown origin, sometimes identified as anthrax, targeted the animals of Europe, notably sheep and cattle, further reducing the food supply and income of the peasantry. This put another strain on the economy. The increasingly international nature of the European economies meant that the depression was felt across the whole continent.
Asian outbreak
The scenario that would place the first outbreak in central Asia agrees with the first reports of outbreaks in
China in the early 1330s. The plague struck the Chinese province of
Hubei in 1334. On the heels of the European epidemic, more widespread disaster occurred in China during 1353–1354. Chinese accounts of this wave of the disease record a spread to eight distinct areas: Hubei, Jiangxi, Shanxi,
Hunan,
Guangdong,
Guangxi,
Henan and Suiyuan,Suiyuan was a historical Chinese province that now forms part of
Hebei and
Inner Mongolia. throughout the Mongol and Chinese empires. Historian William McNeill noted that voluminous Chinese records on disease and social disruption survive from this period, but no one has studied these sources in depth.
It is probable that the
Mongols and merchant caravans inadvertently brought the plague from central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. The plague was reported in the trading cities of Constantinople and
Trabzon in 1347. In that same year, the
Republic of Genoa possession of Theodosia, a great trade emporium on the
Crimean peninsula, came under siege by an army of
Mongol warriors under the command of
Janibeg, backed by
Republic of Venice forces. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from the disease, they might have decided to use the infected corpses as a
biological weapon. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants.Svat Soucek.
A History of Inner Asia.
Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-65704-0. p. 116. The Genoese traders fled, transferring the plague via their ships into the south of Europe, whence it rapidly spread. According to accounts, so many died in Caffa that the survivors had little time to bury them and bodies were stacked like cords of firewood against the city walls.
European outbreak
In October 1347, a fleet of Genovese trading ships fleeing Caffa reached the port of
Messina, Italy. By the time the fleet reached Messina, all the crew members were either infected or dead. It is presumed that the ships also carried infected rats and/or fleas. Some ships were found grounded on shorelines, with no one aboard remaining alive. Looting of these lost ships also helped spread the disease. From there, the plague spread to
Genoa and
Venice by the turn of 1347–1348.
From Italy the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France,
Spain,
Portugal and England by June 1348, then turned and spread east through
Germany and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced in Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at
Askøy, then proceeded to spread to
Bjørgvin (modern
Bergen). Finally it spread to north-western
Russia in 1351; however, the plague largely spared some parts of Europe, including the Piast Poland#The Kingdom of Later Piasts (1295–1370) and isolated parts of Belgium and The Netherlands.
Middle Eastern outbreak
The plague struck various countries in the Middle East during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures. As it spread to western Europe, the disease also entered the region from southern Russia. By autumn 1347, the plague reached Alexandria in
Egypt, probably through the port's trade with
Constantinople and ports on the
Black Sea. During 1348, the disease traveled eastward to
Gaza, and north along the eastern coast to cities in
Lebanon,
Syria and
Palestine, including Asqalan,
Acre, Israel, Jerusalem, Sidon, Damascus,
Homs, and Aleppo. In 1348–49, the disease reached
Antioch. The city's residents fled to the north, most of them dying during the journey, but the infection had been spread to the people of Asia Minor.
Mecca became infected in 1349. During the same year, records show the city of Mawsil (Mosul) suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease. In 1351, Yemen experienced an outbreak of the plague. This coincided with the return of King Mujahid of Yemen from imprisonment in Cairo. His party may have brought the disease with them from Egypt.
Recurrence
In
England, in the absence of census figures, historians propose a range of pre-incident population figures from as high as 7 million to as low as 4 million in 1300, and a post-incident population figure as low as 2 million.Secondary sources such as the
Cambridge History of Medieval England often contain discussions of methodology in reaching these figures that are necessary reading for anyone wishing to understand this controversial episode in more detail. By the end of 1350 the Black Death had subsided, but it never really died out in England over the next few hundred years: there were further outbreaks in 1361-62, 1369, 1379-83, 1389-93, and throughout the first half of the fifteenth century. Plague often killed 10% of a community in less than a year - in the worst epidemics, such as at
Norwich in 1579 and Newcastle upon Tyne in 1636, as many as 30 or 40%. The most general outbreaks in Tudor and Stuart England, all coinciding with years of plague in
Germany and the Low Countries, seem to have begun in 1498, 1535, 1543, 1563, 1589, 1603, 1625 and 1636. Spread of the Plague
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries, and although bubonic plague still occurs in isolated cases today, the
Great Plague of London in 1665–1666 is generally recognized as one of the last major outbreaks. The Great Fire of London in 1666 may have killed off any remaining plague-bearing rats and fleas, which led to a decline in the plague.
Late outbreaks in central Europe include the
Italian Plague of 1629-1631, which is associated with troop movements during the
Thirty Years' War, and the
Great Plague of Vienna in 1679.
Causes of bubonic infection
Bubonic plague theory
seen at 2000x magnification. This bacterium, carried and spread by fleas, is generally thought to have been the cause of millions of deaths
Plague and the ecology of
Yersinia pestis in soil, and in rodent and (possibly and importantly) human
ectoparasites are reviewed and summarized by Michel Drancourt in modeling sporadic, limited and large plague outbreaks.{{cite web | last = Drancourt,
| first = M.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Houhamdi, L; Raoult, D.
| title = Yersinia pestis as a telluric, human ectoparasite-borne organism
| work = Infectious Diseases
| publisher = [The Lancet
| date =
| url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70438-8
| accessdate = --> Modelling of epizootic plague observed in prairie dogs suggests that occasional reservoirs of infection such as an infectious carcass, rather than "blocked fleas" are a better explanation for the observed [epizootic behaviour of the disease in nature.{{cite web
| last = Webb,
| first = Colleen T.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Christopher P. Brooks, Kenneth L. Gage, and Michael F. Antolin
| title = Classic flea-borne transmission does not drive plague epizootics in prairie dogs
| work = Infectious Diseases
| publisher = [Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
| date = April 7 [
| url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/0510090103v1the apples
| format=pdf
| accessdate = 2006-12-12 -->
An interesting hypothesis about the epidemiology— the appearance, spread and especially disappearance— of plague from Europe is that the flea-bearing rodent reservoir of disease was eventually succeeded by another species. The black rat (
Rattus rattus) was originally introduced from Asia to Europe by trade, but was subsequently displaced and succeeded throughout Europe by the bigger brown rat (
Rattus norvegicus). The brown rat was not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large die-offs due to a different rat ecology.Appleby and Slack, secondary references. The dynamic complexities of rat ecology,
herd immunity in that reservoir, interaction with human ecology, secondary transmission routes between humans with or without fleas, human herd immunity and changes in each might explain the eruption, dissemination, and re-eruptions of plague that continued for centuries until its (even more) unexplained disappearance.
Signs and symptoms
The three forms of plague brought an array of signs and symptoms to those infected. Bubonic plague refers to the painful lymph node swellings called
buboes, mostly found around the base of the neck, and in the armpits and groin. The septicaemic plague is a form of blood poisoning, and pneumonic plague is an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body. The classic sign of bubonic plague was the appearance of buboes in the groin, the neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled. Victims underwent damage to the skin and underlying tissue, until they were covered in dark blotches. Most victims died within four to seven days after infection. When the plague reached Europe, it first struck port cities and then followed the trade routes, both by sea and land.
The
bubonic plague was the most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a mortality rate of thirty to seventy-five percent and symptoms including fever of 38 - 41 °
Celsius (101-105 Fahrenheit),
headaches, painful aching joints,
nausea and
vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. Of those who contracted the bubonic plague, 4 out of 5 died within eight days. Rebecca Totaro,
Suffering in Paradise: The Bubonic Plague in English Literature from More to Milton, (Pittsburgh: Duquense University Press: 2005), p. 26.
Pneumonic plague was the second most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a
mortality rate of ninety to ninety-five percent. Symptoms included fever, cough and blood-tinged
sputum. As the disease progressed, sputum became free flowing and bright red. Septicaemic plague was the least common of the three forms, with mortality close to one hundred percent. Symptoms were high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to DIC (Disseminated intravascular coagulation)).
David HerlihyHerlihy,
The Black Death and the Transformation of the West (1997) Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, p. 29. identifies another potential sign of the plague: freckle-like spots and rashes. Sources from Viterbo, Italy refer to "the signs which are vulgarly called
lenticulae," a word which bears resemblance to the Italian word for freckles,
lentiggini. These are not the swellings of buboes, but rather "darkish points or pustules which covered large areas of the body."
Alternative explanations
Recent scientific and historical investigations have led some researchers to doubt the long-held belief that the Black Death was an epidemic of bubonic plague. For example, in 2000, Gunnar KarlssonKarlsson,
Iceland's 1100 Years: The History of a Marginal Society pointed out that the Black Death killed between half and two-thirds of the population of
Iceland, although there were no rats in Iceland at this time. Rats were accidentally introduced in the nineteenth century, and have never spread beyond a small number of urban areas attached to seaports. In the fourteenth century there were no urban settlements in Iceland. Iceland was unaffected by the later plagues which are known to have been spread by rats. However, without a rodent reservoir, pneumonic plague can be transmitted from human to human by respiratory transmission, and bubonic and septicemic plague can be transmitted from human to human by human-biting fleas.
In addition, it was previously argued that tooth pulp tissue from a fourteenth-century plague cemetery in
Montpellier tested positive for molecules associated with
Y. pestis. Similar findings were reported in a 2007 study, "
Yersinia pestis Orientalis in remains of ancient plague patients." but other studies have yielded negative results. In September 2003, a team of researchers from
University of Oxford tested 121 teeth from sixty-six skeletons found in fourteenth-century mass graves. The remains showed no genetic trace of
Y. pestis, and the researchers suspect that the Montpellier study was flawed.
In 2002, Samuel K. Cohn published the controversial article, “The Black Death: End of the Paradigm.”Samuel. K Cohn, “The Black Death: End of a Paradigm,” The American Historical Review 107 (2002): 703-738. In the article Cohn argues that the medieval and modern plagues were two distinct diseases differing in their symptoms, signs and epidemiologies.Ibid., 703. Cohn asserts that the agent causing the bubonic plague,
Yersinia pestis, “was first cultured at Hong Kong in 1894.” Ibid. In turn, the medieval plague that struck Europe, according to Cohn, was not the bubonic plague carried by fleas on rats as traditionally viewed by scientists and historians alike.Ibid.
Cohn’s argument that medieval plague was not rat-based is supported by his claims that the modern and medieval plagues hit in different seasons, had unparalleled cycles of recurrence, and varied in the manner in which immunity was acquired. The modern plague reaches its peak in seasons with high humidity and a temperature of between 50 and 78 degrees, as rats’ fleas thrive in this climate.Ibid., 725. In comparison, the Black Death is recorded as hitting in periods where rats’ fleas could not survive, i.e. hot Mediterranean summers above 78 degrees Fahrenheit.Ibid. In terms of recurrence, the Black Death on average did not resurface in an area for between five and fifteen years after it hit.Ibid., 727. Contrastingly, modern plagues often hit an affected area yearly for an average to eight to forty years.Ibid. Last, Cohn presents evidence displaying that individuals gained immunity to the Black Death during the fourteenth century, unlike the modern plague. He states that in 1348 two-thirds of those suffering from plague died in comparison to one-twentieth by 1382.Ibid. Statistics contrastingly display that immunity to the modern plague has not been acquired.
Cohn also points out that in the latter part of the nineteenth century buboes appeared mostly on an infected person's groin, while medieval primary sources indicate that the Black Death caused buboes to appear on necks, armpits, and groins. This difference, he argues, ties in with the fact that fleas caused the modern plague and not the Black Death. Since flea bites do not usually reach beyond a person's ankles, in the modern period the groin was the nearest lymph node that could be infected. As the neck and the armpit were often infected during the medieval plague, it appears less likely that these infections were caused by fleas on rats. Samuel K. Cohn,
The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe (London: Edward Arnold Publishers, 2002), 81.
In 1984, Graham Twigg published
The Black Death: A Biological Reappraisal, where he argued that the climate and ecology of Europe and particularly England made it nearly impossible for rats and fleas to have transmitted bubonic plague. Combining information on the biology of
Rattus rattus,
Rattus norvegicus, and the common fleas
Xenopsylla cheopis and
Pulex irritans with modern studies of plague epidemiology, particularly in India, where the
R. rattus is a native species and conditions are nearly ideal for plague to be spread, Twigg concludes that it would have been nearly impossible for
Yersinia pestis to have been the causative agent of the plague, let alone its explosive spread across Europe. Twigg also shows that the common theory of entirely pneumonic spread does not hold up. He proposes, based on a re-examination of the evidence and symptoms, that the Black Death may actually have been an epidemic of pulmonary
anthrax caused by
Bacillus anthracis.
In 2001, epidemiology Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan from
Liverpool University proposed the theory that the Black Death might have been caused by an
Ebola virus-like
virus (biology), not a bacterium. Their rationale was that this plague spread much faster and the incubation period was much longer than other confirmed
Y.pestis-caused plagues. A longer period of incubation will allow carriers of the infection to travel farther and infect more people than a shorter one. When the primary vector (biology) is humans, as opposed to birds, this is of great importance. Studies of English church records indicate an unusually long incubation period in excess of thirty days, which could account for the rapid spread, topping at 5 km/day. The plague also appeared in areas of Europe where rats were uncommon, areas such as Iceland. Epidemiological studies suggest the disease was transferred between humans (which happens rarely with
Yersinia pestis and very rarely for
Bacillus anthracis), and some genes that determine immunity to Ebola-like viruses are much more widespread in Europe than in other parts of the world. Their research and findings are thoroughly documented in
Return of the Black Death: The World's Greatest Serial Killer. More recently the researchers have published computer modeling
Journal of Medical Genetics: March 2005 demonstrating how the Black Death has made around 10% of Europeans resistant to HIV.
In a similar vein, historian Norman F. Cantor, in his 2001 book
In the Wake of the Plague, suggests the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of
anthrax disease, a cattle
murrain. He cites many forms of evidence including: reported disease symptoms not in keeping with the known effects of either bubonic or
pneumonic plague, the discovery of anthrax spores in a plague pit in
Scotland, and the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague. It is notable that the means of infection varied widely, from human-to-human contact as in Iceland (rare for plague and cutaneous
Bacillus anthracis) to infection in the absence of living or recently-dead humans, as in Sicily (which speaks against most viruses). Also, diseases with similar symptoms were generally not distinguished between in that period (see
murrain above), at least not in the Christian world; Chinese and Muslim medical records can be expected to yield better information which however only pertains to the specific disease(s) which affected these areas.
Counter-arguments
Historians who believe that the Black Death was indeed caused by bubonic plague have put forth several counterarguments.
The uncharacteristically rapid spread of the plague could be due to respiratory droplet transmission, and low levels of immunity in the European population at that period. Historical examples of pandemics of other diseases in populations without previous exposure, such as smallpox and tuberculosis transmitted by aerosol amongst Indigenous peoples of the Americas, show that the first instance of an epidemic spreads faster and is far more virulent than later instances among the descendants of survivors, for whom natural selection has produced characteristics that are protective against the disease.
Michael McCormick, a historian offering the idea that bubonic plague was indeed the source of the Black Death, explains how archaeological research has confirmed that the black or "ship" rat was indeed present in Roman and medieval Europe. Also, the DNA of
Y. pestis has been identified in the teeth of human victims, the same DNA which has been widely believed to have come from the infected rodents. Michael McCormick, "Rats, Communications, and Plague: Toward an Ecological History,"
Journal of Interdisciplinary History 34 (2003): 25. He does not refute the point that there exists a pneumonic expression of
Y. pestis transmitted by human-to-human contact, but he states that this does not spread as easily as previous historians have imagined. The rat, according to him, is the only plausible agent of transmission that could have led to such a wide and quick spread of the plague. This is because of rats' proclivity to associate with humans and the ability of their blood to withstand very large concentrations of the bacillus. Ibid., 2. When rats died, their fleas (which were infected with bacterial blood) found new hosts in the form of humans and animals. The Black Death tapered off in the eighteenth century, and according to McCormick, a rat-based theory of transmission could explain why this occurred. The plague(s) had killed a lot of the human host population of Europe and dwindling cities meant that more people were isolated, and so geography and demography did not allow rats to have as much contact with Europeans. Slacking communication systems also hindered the replenishment of decimated rat colonies. Ibid., 23.
A Malthusian crisis
In addition, various historians have adopted yet another theory for the cause of the Black Plague, one that points to social, agricultural, and sometimes economic causes. Often known as the Malthusian limit, scholars use this term to express, and/or explain, certain tragedies throughout history. In his 1798
Essay on the Principle of Population,
Thomas Malthus asserted that eventually humans would reproduce so greatly that they would go beyond the limits of food supplies; once they reached this point, some sort of "reckoning" was inevitable. While the Black Death may appear to be a "reckoning" of this sort, it was in fact an external, unpredictable factor and does not therefore fit into the Malthusian theory. In his book,
The Black Death and the Transformation of the West,
David Herlihy explores this idea of Plague as an inevitable crisis wrought on man in order to control the population and human resources. In the book,
The Black Death; A Turning Point in History? “implies that the Black Death’s pivotal role in late medieval society... was now being challenged. Arguing on the basis of a neo-Malthusian economics, revisionist historians recast the Black Death as a necessary and long overdue corrective to an overpopulated Europe” .
Herlihy examines the arguments against the Malthusian crisis, stating “if the Black Death was a response to excessive human numbers it should have arrived several decades earlier” due to the population growth of years before the outbreak of the Black Death. Herlihy also brings up other, biological factors that argue against the Plague as a "reckoning" by arguing “the role of famines in affecting population movements is also problematic. The many famines preceding the Black Death, even the ‘great hunger’ of 1314 to 1317, did not result in any appreciable reduction in population levels”. Finally Herlihy concludes the matter stating, “the medieval experience shows us not a Malthusian crisis but a stalemate, in the sense that the community was maintaining at stable levels very large numbers over a lengthy period” and states that the phenomenon should be referred to as more of a deadlock, rather than a crisis, to describe Europe before the epidemics.
Consequences
Depopulation
See also: Medieval demography.Figures for the death toll vary widely by area and from source to source as new research and discoveries come to light. According to medieval historian Philip Daileader in 2007Philip Daileader,
The Late Middle Ages, audio/video course produced by
The Teaching Company, 2007. ISBN 978-1-59803-345-8:The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45% to 50% of the European population dying during a four-year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Mediterranean Europe and Italy, the South of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 70% to 75% of the population. In Germany and England . . . it was probably closer to 20%.
Asia
Estimates of the demographic impact of the plague in Asia are based on both population figures during this time and estimates of the disease's toll on population centers. The initial outbreak of plague in the
China province of Hubei in 1334 claimed up to ninety percent of the population, an estimated five million people. During 1353–54, outbreaks in eight distinct areas throughout the
Mongol Empire may have possibly caused the death of two-thirds of China's population, often yielding an estimate of twenty-five million deaths. Black Death - Consequences Japan had no outbreak of plague.
Europe and Middle East
It is estimated that between one-quarter and two-thirds of the European population died from the outbreak between 1348 and 1350. Gottfried, Robert S. (1983). The Black Death. New York: The Free Press Contemporary observers, such as Jean Froissart, estimated the toll to be one-third -- less an accurate assessment than an allusion to the Book of Revelation meant to suggest the scope of the plague.Jean Froissart,
Chronicles (trans. Geoffrey Brereton, Penguin, 1968, corrections 1974) pp.111 Many rural villages were depopulated, mostly the smaller communities, as the few survivors fled to larger towns and cities leaving behind
abandoned villages.Joseph Patrick Byrne (2004).
The Black Death. ISBN 0313324921 - Page 64. The Black Death hit the culture of towns and cities disproportionately hard, although rural areas (where most of the population lived) were also significantly affected. A few rural areas, such as Poland and Lithuania, had such low populations and were so isolated that the plague made little progress. Parts of
Hungary and, in modern Belgium, the
Duchy of Brabant region, County of Hainaut and
Limbourg, as well as
Santiago de Compostella, were unaffected for unknown reasons (some historians Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, "The Biggest Epidemic of History" (
La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire, in
L'Histoire n°310, June 2006, pp.45-46 have assumed that the presence of resistant blood groups in the local population helped them resist the disease, although these regions would be touched by the second plague outbreak in 1360-1363 and later during the numerous resurgences of the plague). Other areas which escaped the plague were isolated mountainous regions (e.g. the Pyrenees). Larger cities were the worst off, as population densities and close living quarters made disease transmission easier. Cities were also strikingly filthy, infested with lice, fleas and rats, and subject to diseases related to malnutrition and poor hygiene. According to journalist John Kelly, "oefully inadequate sanitation made medieval urban Europe so disease-ridden, no city of any size could maintain its population without a constant influx of immigrants from the countryside."(p. 68) The influx of new citizens facilitated the movement of the plague between communities, and contributed to the longevity of the plague within larger communities.
In Italy,
Florence's population passed from 110,000 or 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351. Between 60 to 70% of Hamburg and
Bremen (city)'s population died. In Provence,
Dauphiné or Normandy, historians observe a decrease of 60% of fiscal hearths. In some regions, two thirds of the population was annihilated. In the town of
Givry, in the
Bourgogne region in
France, the friar, who used to note 28 to 29 funerals a year, recorded 649 deaths in 1348, half of them in September. About half of Perpignan's population died in several months (only two of the eight physicians survived the plague). England lost 70% of its population, which passed from 7 million to 2 million in 1400. Barry and Gualde 2006.
All social classes were affected, although the lower classes, living together in unhealthy places, were most vulnerable. Alfonso XI of Castile was the only royal victim of the plague, but Peter IV of Aragon lost his wife, his daughter and a niece in six months. The
Byzantine Emperor lost his son, while in the
kingdom of France, Joan II of Navarre, daughter of
Louis X of France and of
Margaret of Burgundy, Queen of Navarre, was killed by the plague, as well as
Bonne of Bohemia, the wife of the future John II of France.
Furthermore, resurgences of the plague in later years must also be counted: in 1360-62 (the "little mortality"), in 1366-1369, 1374-1375, 1400, 1407, etc. The plague was not eradicated until the 19th century.
The precise demographic impact of the disease in the Middle East is very difficult to calculate. Mortality was particularly high in rural areas, including significant areas of Palestine and
Syria. Many surviving rural people fled, leaving their fields and crops, and entire rural provinces are recorded as being totally depopulated. Surviving records in some cities reveal a devastating number of deaths. The 1348 outbreak in Gaza left an estimated 10,000 people dead, while Aleppo recorded a death rate of 500 a day during the same year. In
Damascus, at the disease's peak in September and October 1348, a thousand deaths were recorded every day, with overall mortality estimated at between twenty-five and thirty-eight percent. Syria lost a total of 400,000 people by the time the epidemic subsided in March 1349. In contrast to some higher mortality estimates in Asia and Europe, scholars such as John Fields of
Trinity College, Dublin in Dublin believe the mortality rate in the Middle East was less than one-third of the total population, with higher rates in selected areas.
Socio-economic effects
–
1375.The governments of Europe had no apparent response to the crisis because no one knew its cause or how it spread. In 1348, the plague spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as fifty percent of the population to die. Europeans living in isolated areas suffered less, and monasteries and priests were especially hard hit since they cared for the Black Death's victims. Judith M. Bennett and C. Warren Hollister,
Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), 329. Because fourteenth century healers were at a loss in explaining the cause, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for the plagues emergence. Ibid. No one in the fourteenth century considered rat control a way to ward off the plague, and people began to believe only God's anger could produce such horrific displays. As a result, Christians began to attack Jews to please God and end the plague. For example, in August of 1349, the Jewish communities of Mainz and Cologne were exterminated. In February of that same year, Christians murdered two thousand Jews in Strasbourg. Ibid., 329-330. Where government authorities were concerned, most
monarchs instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned
black market speculators, set price controls on grain, and outlawed large-scale fishing. At best, they proved mostly unenforceable, and at worst they contributed to a continent-wide downward spiral. The hardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain abroad: from France because of the prohibition, and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labour. Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by piracy or
looters to be sold on the black market. Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and
Scotland, had been at war, using up much of their
treasury and exacerbating
inflation. In 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what would become known as the
Hundred Years' War, further depleting their treasuries, population, and infrastructure. Malnutrition, poverty, disease and hunger, coupled with war, growing inflation and other economic concerns made Europe in the mid-fourteenth century ripe for tragedy.
The plague did more than just devastate the medieval population; it caused a substantial change in economy and society in all areas of the world. Economic historians like
Fernand Braudel have concluded that Black Death exacerbated a
recession in the European economy that had been under way since the beginning of the century. As a consequence, social and economic change greatly accelerated during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The church's power was weakened, and in some cases, the social roles it had played were replaced by secular ones. Also the plague led to
Popular revolt in late medieval Europe in many parts of Europe, such as France (the
Jacquerie rebellion), Italy (the
Ciompi rebellion, which swept the city of
Florence), and in England (the
English Peasant Revolt).
Europe had been overpopulated before the plague, and a reduction of 30% to 50% of the population could have resulted in higher wages and more available land and food for peasants because of less competition for resources. However, for reasons that are still debated, population levels declined after the Black Death's first outbreak until around 1420 and did not begin to rise again until 1470, so the initial Black Death event on its own does not entirely provide a satisfactory explanation to this extended period of decline in prosperity. See Medieval demography for a more complete treatment of this issue and current theories on why improvements in living standards took longer to evolve.
The great population loss brought economic changes based on increased social mobility, as depopulation further eroded the peasants' already weakened obligations to remain on their traditional holdings. In the wake of the drastic population decline brought on by the plague, authorities in Western Europe worked to maintain social order through instituting wage controls.Simon A. C. Penn and Christopher Dyer, “Wages and Earnings in Late Medieval England: Evidence from the Enforcement of the Labour Laws,” The Economic History Review, New Series 43, no. 3 (Aug., 1990): 356-357. http://www.jstor.org/ (accessed September 8, 2007). These governmental controls were set in place to ensure that workers received the same salary post-plague as they had before the onslaught of the Black Death.Ibid. Within England, for example, the Ordinance of Labourers, created in 1349, and the
Statute of Labourers, created in 1351, restricted both wage increases and the relocation of workers.Ibid., 357. If workers attempted to leave their current post, employers were given the right to have them imprisoned.Ibid. The Statute was strictly enforced in some areas. For example, 7,556 people in Essex County were fined for deviating from the Statute in 1352.Joseph P. Byrne, The Black Death, (London: Greenwood Predd, 2004), 65. However, despite examples such as Essex County, the Statute quickly proved to be difficult to enforce due to the scarcity of labour.
In Western Europe, the sudden shortage of cheap labour provided an incentive for landlords to compete for peasants with wages and freedoms, an innovation that, some argue, represents the roots of capitalism, and the resulting social upheaval
caused the
Renaissance and even
Reformation. In many ways the Black Death and its aftermath improved the situation of surviving peasants, notably by the end of the 15th century. In Western Europe, labourers gained more power and were more in demand because of the shortage of labour. In gaining more power, workers following the Black Death often moved away from annual contracts in favour of taking on successive temporary jobs that offered higher wages.Penn and Dyer, 366. Workers such as servants now had the opportunity to leave their current employment to seek better paying, more attractive positions in areas previous off limits to them.Ibid. Another positive aspect of the period was that there was more fertile land available to the population; however, the benefits would not be fully realized until 1470, nearly 120 years later, when overall population levels finally began to rise again.
Social mobility as result of the Black Death has been postulated as most likely cause of the Great Vowel Shift, which is the principal reason why the spelling system in English today no longer reflects its pronunciation.
In
Eastern Europe, by contrast, renewed stringency of laws tied the remaining peasant population more tightly to the land than ever before through serfdom. Sparsely populated Eastern Europe was less affected by the Black Death and so peasant revolts were less common in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, not occurring in the east until the sixteenth through nineteenth centuries. Since it is believed to have in part caused the social upheavals of fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Western Europe, some see the Black Death as a factor in the Renaissance and even the Reformation in Western Europe. Therefore, historians have cited the smaller impact of the plague as a contributing factor in Eastern Europe's
failure to experience either of these movements on a similar scale. Extrapolating from this, the Black Death may be seen as partly responsible for Eastern Europe's considerable lag in scientific and philosophical advances as well as in the move to liberalise government by restricting the power of the monarch and aristocracy. A common example is that England is seen to have effectively ended serfdom by 1550 while moving towards more representative government; meanwhile, Russia did not abolish serfdom until an autocratic tsar decreed so in 1861.
On top of all this, the plague's great population reduction brought cheaper land prices, more food for the average peasant, and a relatively large increase in per capita income among the peasantry, if not immediately, in the coming century. Since the plague left vast areas of farmland untended, they were made available for pasture and put more meat on the market; the consumption of meat and dairy products went up, as did the export of beef and butter from the Low Countries, Scandinavia and northern Germany. However, the upper class often attempted to stop these changes, initially in Western Europe, and more forcefully and successfully in Eastern Europe, by instituting
sumptuary laws. These regulated what people (particularly of the peasant class) could wear, so that nobles could ensure that peasants did not begin to dress and act as a higher class member with their increased wealth. Another tactic was to fix prices and wages so that peasants could not demand more with increasing value. This was met with varying success depending on the amount of rebellion it inspired; such a law was one of the causes of the 1381
Peasants' Revolt in England in the Middle Ages.
Persecutions
As previously mentioned in reference to the plagues sociocultural impacts, renewed religious fervor and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of Black Death. This spelled trouble for minority populations of all sorts, as some Christians targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims", David Nirenberg,
Communities of Violence, op.cit. lepersR.I. Moore
The Formation of a Persecuting Society, Oxford, 1987 ISBN 0-631-17145-2David Nirenberg,
Communities of Violence, 1998, ISBN 0-691-05889-X and gypsies, thinking that they were to blame for the crisis.
Leprosy, and other individuals with skin diseases such as
Acne vulgaris or
psoriasis, were singled out and exterminated throughout Europe. Anyone with leprosy was believed to show an outward sign of a defect of the soul.
Differences in cultural and lifestyle practices between Jews and Christians also led to persecution. Jews were charged by some with having provoked the Plague. Because Jews had a religious obligation to be clean, they did not use water from public wells. And so as previously mentioned, Jews were suspected of causing the plague by deliberately poisoning wells. Typically, comparatively fewer Jews died from the Black Death, in part due to
Kashrut that promoted habits that were generally cleaner than that of a typical medieval villager. Jews were also socially isolated, often living in Jewish ghettos. Because isolated people were less likely to be infected, there were differences in mortality rates between Jews and non-Jews and this led to raised suspicions in people who had no concept of bacterial transmission.
Christian mobs attacked Jewish settlements across Europe; by 1351, sixty major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed, and more than 350 separate massacres had occurred. This persecution reflected more than ethnic hatred. In many places, attacking Jews was a way to criticize the monarchs who protected them (Jews were under the protection of the king, and often called the "royal treasure"), and monarchic fiscal policies, which were often administered by Jews. An important legacy of the Black Death was to cause the eastward movement of what was left of north European Jewry to Poland and Russia, where it remained until the twentieth century.
Women also faced persecution during the Black Death. Within areas of the Middle East, notably in Cairo, women became scapegoats when the plague struck.Joseph P. Byrne, The Black Death, (London: Greenwood Predd, 2004), 108. In 1438, the sultan of Cairo was informed by his religious lawyers that the arrival of the plague was Allah’s punishment for the sin of fornication.Ibid. In accordance with this theory, a law was set in place stating that women were not allowed to make public appearances as they may tempt men into sin.Ibid. Joseph P. Byrne in his book,
The Black Plague, describes that this law was only lifted when “the wealthy complained that their female servants could not shop for food.”Ibid.
In the Muslim world, particularly in
Makkah, the disease was blamed on non-believers who had entered the city. hi
Religion
The Black Death led to cynicism toward religious officials who could not keep their promises of curing plague victims and banishing the disease. No one, the Church included, was able to cure or accurately explain the reasons for the plague outbreaks. One theory of transmission was that it spread through air, and was referred to as Miasma theory of disease, or 'bad air'. This increased doubt in the
clergy abilities. Extreme alienation with the Church culminated in either support for different religious groups such as the
flagellants, which from their late 13th century beginnings grew tremendously during the opening years of the Black Death, or to an increase in interest for more secular alternatives to problems facing European so
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Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Insecta Family: Pulicidae Order: Siphonaptera Genus:
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